General John (VI)

The year 931 opened with a string of Arab victories. In March the Arab general, Munis, led three successful raids into Roman territory from his base at Tarsus. At the same time a fleet of eleven warships set sail to attack the Empire from Egypt, though their fate is unknown.

Several months later, in August, another Arab army invaded Anatolia and drove all the way to Ancyra, capturing prisoners worth 136,000 dinars. 

However, the Romans under their Domestic, John Curcuas, now launched a counter-offensive in the East. In response to a plea from Armenian princes, under attack by the Arabs, he marched into Ahlat (eastern Anatolia), captured a city and took a large number of captives. 

Curcuas was now very close to Melitene (Malatya), one of the chief Arab cities on the frontier. Alarmed by his presence, the citizens appealed for help. In response an Arab army, led by a powerful ruler of Mosul, arrived in time to drive Curcuas back.

The Domestic was a cautious general, keen to avoid pitched battles, but also a persistent one. He returned in the following years, engaging in skirmish warfare and taking more prisoners. Finally, in 934, he crossed the border at the head of a field army of 50,000 men. They included the Armenian folk-hero, Melias, and his crack mountain fighters.

Curcuas chose his moment carefully. He launched his final offensive against Melitene at a time when the fall of the Caliph, Quahir, was occupying the Muslim world. As a result, the Domestic met with no serious opposition in his advance on the city. Most of the population fled, and Melitene surrendered on 19th April. It was quickly incorporated into the Empire and subjected to heavy tribute.

(Attached is an image of the fall of Melitene in 934)

General John (V)

Although the Romans could not establish a permanent occupation of Armenia, it was still possible to secure the frontier. In 930 the Domestic, John Curcuas, and his brother Theophilus, were assigned to this task.

The brothers targeted the city of Theodosiopolis, now Erzurum in eastern Anatolia, Turkey. At the time it was of prime strategic importance: one road ran from the city down the Araxes river into Armenia, another over the hills to Manzikert. 

While the city was held by the Arabs, the surrounding countryside was occupied by the people of Iberia (modern Georgia). Although nominally allies against the Muslims, the Iberians had no desire to see the Roman Empire entrenched on its borders. So, while pretending friendship with John Curcuas, they secretly supplied the Arab defenders of Theodosiopolis with provisions from a neighbouring town, Cetzeum.

When they became aware of this, the Curcuas brothers asked to be allowed to occupy Cetzeum for the duration of the siege. This request was angrily refused by the governor, on the grounds that it would make him unpopular with the other local Armenian princes. He would only permit a Roman officer to enter the city, who could be easily ignored. 

At the same time the Iberians demanded to be given possession of any Arab towns and fortresses conquered by the Romans. To enforce their claims, they produced forged charters or 'golden bulls', which they pretended had been granted to them by the emperor, Romanos I.

Showing considerable tact, John Curcuras let all of this pass. He needed the Iberians to secure his flank, so he smiled at their requests and did nothing. Meanwhile his equally capable brother, Theophilus, burnt and ravaged the countryside and took prisoner a local emir, who consented to give his son as a hostage and join the imperial army. 

Finally, after a siege of seven months, the Romans captured Theodosiopolis. It became a vassal tributary state, but John Curcuas still had to step carefully. To keep the Iberians sweet, he granted them all conquered territory north of the Araxes. 

(Attached is a pic of a building at Erzurum from the later Seljuq era)

General John (IV)

In 926 the Roman offensive in the East got properly underway. Released from the threat of the Bulgars, Emperor Romanos I was able to concentrate all his military resources against the Arab caliphates. 

The situation was complicated by a civil war in Armenia, effectively a 'buffer state' between the Romans in Anatolia and their Arab enemies. This was fought between two claimants of the Bagratid dynasty, both named Ashot. One of the claimants was supported by the Romans, the other by the Arabs.

After several years of heavy fighting, the Roman-backed claimant, Ashot Yerkat (the Iron), triumphed over his rival. He was then recognised by the Caliph of Baghdad, who awarded him the title 'King of Kings'. This upset his former Roman allies, who had wanted to use Ashot to enforce their own power in Armenia, not that of the Islamic Caliphate.

As a result, the emperor sent his Domestic, John Curcuras, to support the Armenian rebels and bring the country under Roman influence. At first Curcuras did well, and briefly captured the city of Samasota (now Samsat in southeast Turkey). Here, his soldiers scandalised the local Muslims by banging a gong in the mosque during the prayer hour. The arrival of Arab reinforcements obliged the Romans to evacuate the town and withdraw.

The Arabs in turn counter-attacked with a raid from Tarsus, but were defeated. Later in the year Curcuras re-entered Armenia and attacked the city of Dvin, defended by Ashot and his Arab allies. 

Curcuras was unable to take the city, but returned for a second bite at the cherry. This time he used Greek Fire against the defenders, and managed to breach the walls and occupy part of the city. However, his troops were forced out by the civilian populace, as well as the combined Arab and Armenian garrison. After taking heavy losses, the Domestic was forced to retreat a second time. 

Curcuras switched to attacking Muslim towns in southern Armenia. He captured Khelat on Lake Van, in the far east of modern Turkey, where the inhabitants were ordered to place a cross over their mosques and destroy the minarets. The Muslims of the neighbouring towns repeatedly begged the Caliph at Baghdad for aid, but none came. As a result many of them abandoned the province. The Domestic was then forced to retreat (again) before an Arab relief army, led by a ruler of Azerbaijan. 

For all his military skill, Curcuras encountered serious problems in Armenia. He took a number of cities, but was unable to hold onto them for very long. This was, apparently, because the mixed population of Christian Armenians and Muslim Arabs didn't want to be governed by the Romans. In the face of such determined resistance, there wasn't much the Domestic could hope to achieve.

His master, Romanos I, was wise enough to realise this. When the Caliphate in Azerbaijan collapsed into civil war, the emperor took the opportunity to evacuate his troops from Armenia. This in turn meant he could focus on his far greater interest: the former Roman provinces in Syria. 

(Attached is an image of the use of Greek Fire in a naval battle)

General John (III)

The first task of John Curcuas, as Domestic or commander-in-chief, was to suppress the revolt of Bardas Boilas, who was governor of Chaldia, a strategically important region of the Empire's northeast Anatolian frontier. 

Bardas, along with his allies Adrian the Chaldian and Tatzaces, a rich Armenian, revolted against the emperor and held out in the fortress of Paiperte (now Bayburt in northeast Turkey). Curcuas marched into Chaldia, stormed the citadel and took the rebels prisoner. They were not treated severely: Bardas, once the emperor's friend, was packed off to a monastery. He was replaced as governor by Curcuas's younger brother, Theophilus. 

After this excitement, Curcuas was involved in a much more serious conflict with the powerful Muslim cities beyond the Euphrates. In 925 his master, Emperor Romanos, felt strong enough to demand tribute from these cities. When they refused, Curcuas was sent in to exercise a bit of sledgehammer diplomacy. 

The Domestic targeted Melitene, now Malatya in eastern Turkey. He was accompanied by an Armenian captain, Melias, who became something of a folk-hero. The citizens of Melitene, seriously alarmed, sent to the Caliph at Baghdad for help, but none was sent. 

Curcuas stormed the town, but the citadel held out. After ten days he agreed to withdraw, in exchange for hostages and a promise of peace and tribute. 

(Attached is an image of the Roman attack on Melitene)

General John (II)

Apart from his birthplace and religious education, nothing is known of the early life of John Curcuas. He first came to notice during the regency of Empress Zoe Karbonopsina ('with the coal-black eyes'), which lasted from 913-919. Curcuas was appointed commander of the Vigla or 'guard watch', an elite unit employed as the palace guard at Constantinople. 

Curcuas owed his rise to the influence of a fellow Armenian, Romanos Lekapenos, admiral or 'droungarious' of the Roman fleet. Romanos had his eyes on the imperial throne, and in 919 had himself appointed regent at Zoe's expense. His crony, Curcuas, helped smooth the way by arresting several high officials who had opposed Romanos's ambition. 

Over the next few months, Romanos assumed more powers until he was able to take the final step, and have himself declared senior emperor in December 920. This was at the expense of Zoe's son, Constantine, the rightful heir since he had been born 'of the purple'. That is, he was born in the purple chamber of the palace, decorated with porphyry, where the legitimate children of reigning emperors were traditionally born. Romanos, by contrast, was just another usurper. 

To do him justice, Romanos was not bloodthirsty. Most Roman usurpers would have blinded and gelded Constantine, then packed him off to a monastery for a life of quiet contemplation. Instead he refused to lay a finger on the boy and allowed him to live at the palace, where Constantine developed a taste for art and music.

In 923, as a reward for his support, Curcuras was promoted to Domestic of the Schools, effective commander-in-chief of all the imperial armies in Anatolia. Now his career really began. 

(Attached is an image of the baptism of Constantine) 

General John (1)

John Curcuras (otherwise spelled Gungan or Curcuras) is a forgotten military hero of the so-called 'Byzantine' empire, or that part of the Roman empire that survived the fall of the West. In his own day Curcuras was celebrated by Roman chroniclers as the equal of Trajan and Flavius Belisarius, so I thought it worth taking a closer look at his career. 

Curcuras belonged to a family of Armenian descent with a strong military tradition. He was born in the village of Dokeia Darbidoun (now Tokat in modern Turkey) and educated in the Scriptures by his kinsman, Christopher, the bishop or metropolitan of Gangrai. His grandfather, also John, had been commander of the Hikanatoi, one of the Roman tagmata or elite guard units stationed near the capital, Constantinople.

This earlier John had taken part in a conspiracy against the Emperor Basil I the Macedonian (reigned 867-86). Although widespread, including no less than sixty-six Roman senators, the conspiracy was a failure. Basil, one of the strongest of Eastern emperors, conducted a public trial of the conspirators in the Hippodrome of Constantinpole. The rebels were condemned to beatings and forcible tonsure, then made to walk naked behind the emperor in a festive procession. Afterwards they were banished and their possessions confiscated. Fortunately for our John Curcuras, the family managed to claw their way back into favour.

His father, probably named Romanos, was a wealthy official in the imperial palace. Thus, the disgrace of the grandfather was not passed down the generations, and the Curcuras remained an important part of the landed Roman aristocracy.  

Attached is an image of Basil I and his son and successor, Leo 'the Wise'.